Chapter 11 - Teaching Techniques

Richard C. Nelson

In the preceding chapters the fundamentals of volleyball have been discussed in detail. An instructor must have a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of any sport before he can do a real good job of teaching. Methods and techniques of teaching are not sufficient without this grounding in the basic aspects of a sport. It is also true that a knowledge of the fundamentals alone is insufficient for the teacher or coach. He must know sound methods and techniques of imparting his knowledge to the student or player.

In this chapter the emphasis will be placed on the methods and techniques of teaching volleyball. This includes suggestions for teaching as well as appropriate drills and tests. Since there are probably as many unique teaching situations as there are teachers, a general approach to teaching has been followed. The material has been arranged in a logical manner progressing from the basic to the advanced levels. Certainly no instructor would have reason to use all the material presented. However, certain portions of it would be useful to all instructors, regardless of their teaching circumstances.

Class Organization

During the first meeting the usual administrative matters dealing with the class must be covered. In addition, the introduction to the course may be given. This should include a general description of the game and a brief discussion of its history. If a short film covering this material is available, it could be shown at this time.

Before beginning the instruction phase, the class should be arranged in squads or teams. Reasonably balanced teams can be obtained by taking every fifth name (in the case of five teams) from the class roll. The number in each squad is usually dependent upon the class size and the number of courts available. If possible, squads of six or seven students should be selected. If seven are selected, the additional man will cover absences and can rotate in smoothly during team play. For a coeducational class, a good ratio is two boys to one girl. The teams can then be composed of two girls as setters and four boys as spikers. Instructors who plan to have students officiate should divide the class into an odd number of teams. Thus, when a team is not scheduled to play, its members are called upon to officiate. The team rosters should be posted so the students can quickly learn their team number and the names of their team mates. Two or three minutes of warm-up exercises should be performed prior to each class period. These should include push-ups on the fingertips, jumping, and sit-ups. See Chapter 9 for other appropriate exercises.

For maximum skill development there should be one ball for every two students. Since this situation seldom exists, well-organized group drills are essential for optimal learning. All available balls, including old and worn ones, should be used, to keep the ratio of students per ball as low as possible. To motivate the students during the drills, competition between squads should be held whenever possible.

Individual Fundamentals and Drills

The pass is usually introduced first. While learning the mechanics of the pass, the most common mistakes made are: (1) failure to move under the ball, and (2) not passing high enough. The following are drills for developing passing skill. Those best suited for unskilled students are presented first.

Key to Diagrams

O—Player; —>- Path of Player;           > Path of Ball

Figure #30 shows the "pepper" drill. The leader passes alternately to the others as they return the pass to him. Each of the squad members is given an opportunity to act as the leader. The teacher can move from group to group and assume the leader's position. By so doing, he can both instruct and motivate the students and demonstrate the proper technique at the same time.

Fig. #30. "PEPPER" PASSING DRILL

The circle passing drill1 (Figure #31) involves passing the ball around a circle approximately 12 feet in diameter. If the squad has an even number of players, each pass goes to the next man in the circle. If the number is odd, the pass goes to the second player to the right of the passer. This drill

stresses positioning the body so as to face the man to whom the pass is intended. A variation of this drill is to place one player in the center who passes alternately to the others as in the "pepper" drill.
 
The parallel line passing drill2 (Figure #32) is especially useful in large classes when a limited number of balls are . available. The two lines should start about 8 to 10 feet apart and move back as the students improve in ball control. The last man (No. 8 in the diagram) passes the ball to No. 1, and the cycle is repeated. Once this pattern is mastered, two balls may be passed simultaneously.

A somewhat more advanced drill is shown in Figure #33.8 The two files are placed about 10 to 12 feet apart. The front player moves to the rear of his own file after completing his pass. A variation is to have the passer move across (keeping to the right) to the end of the other file after completing his pass.4

Fig. #33. FILE PASSING DRILL

The basket-pass drill is very popular among volleyball students. The squad forms a semicircle with a 10-foot radius about a point directly below the basket. The leader of the drill stands beneath the basket and passes alternately to the other members. The players attempt to pass the ball into the basket. Individual points may be awarded as follows: one point for hitting the backboard; two for hitting the rim, but not going through; and three for making a basket. These individual points can be totaled and compared with the other groups. This drill encourages the students to pass the ball high, which is essential for good passing.

For advanced players the drill in Figure #34 may be used. The players jog in a counterclockwise direction while passing to the man in front. This is an excellent pregame warm-up drill.

Fig. #34. PASSING DRILL

The next fundamental introduced is the underhand or dig pass. The writer suggests teaching the two-hand technique first and then later the one-hand technique. Emphasis should be placed on passing or digging the ball up high enough so that a team mate can make the next pass. It should be mentioned again that the dig pass should be used only when a student is unable to make a chest pass. Having taught this pass, the instructor should insist upon its use in all underhand plays whether in drills or in scrimmage. The chest pass drills in Figures #30, #31, and #33 can also be used for the dig pass.

An excellent application of this pass is in retrieving the ball from the net. In Figure #35,5 Player 1 passes the ball into the net and says, "set" or "over." Player 2 on the command "set" attempts to dig the ball up to be spiked; if the command "over" is given, he tries to dig the ball up and over the net.

Fig. #35. DIG PASS DRILL FOR RETRIEVING NET BALLS
NET

The next fundamental covered is the serve. The underhand serve should be introduced first. It is recommended that emphasis be placed on this serve for students through the secondary school level. Their lack of strength and coordination makes mastery of the overhand and roundhouse serves extremely difficult. However, the average male college student and many of the women college students are capable of learning these more difficult serves.

An excellent beginning drill is to have the student serve against a wall from about 15 feet away. To encourage accuracy, a target or line may be marked on the wall. Another drill may be used with one squad arranged along the end line of each court. One player is stationed on the court to receive the serves from the other side. He then tosses the ball to the first player in his line, who then serves. After the serve, the retriever goes to the end of his line and is replaced by the player who just served. An advanced variation 6 called "spot serving" can be employed as the students become proficient. The servers try to serve directly to the retriever on the other side of the net. The persons retrieving should move to different areas of the court. Another way to stress accurate placement of the serve is to chalk rectangular or circular targets on the courts.

Once the serve has been introduced, the students should be given an opportunity to play during the last portion of the period. A minimum number of rules should be given as they begin playing. The class periods can follow the pattern of reviewing drills of previous skills, introducing and drilling of the next fundamental, and finishing with loosely organized games. As more fundamentals are covered, refinement of the rules may be added.

The next fundamental in the progression is the setup. This is usually difficult for the students to master. The two mistakes most frequently observed are: (1) failing to move the body into the proper position, and (2) not arching the ball high enough.

Fig. #36. SETUP DRILL –NET

The file drill in Figure #33 can be used effectively for setup practice. The two files spaced 15 feet apart should be parallel to the net as shown in Figure #36. After making the set, the student returns to the end of his line. This drill provides the players the" opportunity of becoming properly oriented to the net during the setup. This is essential before progressing to the more difficult drills.

Figure #37 shows an effective drill for developing this fundamental. No. 1 tosses to No. 4, who sets the ball for the retriever. He catches it and tosses to No. 2, who has assumed No. l's position. After making their pass, the players move to the end of the opposite line. With more skillful players, the ball can be passed rather than tossed at each station.

Fig. #37. SETUP DRILL

A more advanced drill is performed by groups of three players.7 They should start about 4 feet from the net. No. 1 stands at the left side line, No. 2 at the center, and No. 3 at the right side line. No. 1 passes to No. 2, who has a choice of returning to No. 1 or setting over his head to No. 3. No. 3 then either passes to No. 1 or No. 2 and the passing continues. They should change positions frequently. In large classes, a line on the floor may be used in place of the net.

Spiking, the most difficult of the basic skills, immediately follows the setup. A majority of the time devoted to teaching the spike should be spent on the two-legged take-off tech-nigue. Since this skill is very complex, a suggested beginning is to have the students first execute the approach and jump without a ball.

Wall spiking8 is one of the most widely used methods of developing this skill. The student starts by driving the ball to the floor close to the wall. The ball will bounce up to the wall and rebound out to the spiker, who jumps up again and spikes it to the floor. This drill gives the instructor a good chance to observe whether the student is imparting overspin to the ball. A soft ball permits the player to hit the ball hard on each play. Handball courts are very useful for wall spiking. A game with two players hitting the ball alternately can easily be developed.

The next step is to lower the nets 1½ feet below the normal height and employ the drill in Figure #38. The first player in the spiking line should be about 8 to 10 feet from the net. He then approaches the net and spikes the ball which has been tossed up by the setter. This provides for a high percentage of good sets, which makes the drill run more smoothly. The players return to the end of the line after spiking. The job of tossing the ball up should be rotated among the team members. Spiking should be practiced from both the left and right sides. Gradually the nets should be raised as skill improves until they are back to their normal height.

Blocking, the main defensive maneuver against the spike, can be combined with the spiking drills. Individual blocking fundamentals may be practiced by having the players line up facing the net and jump to block an imaginary ball.

Fig. #38. SPIKING DRILL
NET

All of the previous drills have been limited to the one fundamental being taught. Since volleyball requires such a high degree of team play, it is important that students understand and practice this phase of the game. For this reason, the following combination drills are presented.

The first of these combines the setup and spike. In Figure #39, No. 2 tosses the ball to No. 1, who in turn sets for No. 3. A modification of this drill9 would be to use another line of spikers on the right side. With a spiker on each side, the setter then has the option of setting forward or back over his head. A further addition to these variations would be to have a player toss the ball to No. 2 from across the net.

Fig. #39. SETUP-SPIKE DRILL
NET-

Figure #40 shows the addition of blocking to the previous drill. One-, two-, and three-man blocks can be practiced during this drill. If desired, spiking and blocking can be done from only one side at a time. The spikers and blockers exchange positions after every five plays. A more advanced version would be to place four blockers along the net. These blockers should attempt to form a three-man block on either side depending upon which player does the spiking.

Fig. #40. SETUP-SPIKE-BLOCK DRILL

o

Advanced Drills

For more advanced players and teams, the following drills are included. The first of these shown in Figure #41 encourages the spiker to move quickly—laterally first and then straight in toward the net. The low or quick set can be used to develop a fast-hitting attack. The inclusion of the blockers provides for defensive practice at the same time.

A variation of this is useful in building deception into the attack (Figure #42). The setter can either set forward to the spiker on the left or give the other spiker a quick set over his head.

Fig. #41. ADVANCED SPIKE DRILL

Fig. #42. SPIKING DRILL—OPTIONAL SET

Fig. #43. "FIRST SET" SPIKING DRILL

The drill in Figure #43 is used to develop the "first set" attack which is used by many foreign teams. It also helps the spikers learn to hit sets originating from the back court. The player setting the ball should move to various positions in the center and back areas of the court.

The European style of play includes the use of a back-line player as the setter. By so doing, all three front-line players are able to spike on the same play. Figure #44 displays a drill to develop this style of attack. The setter can set wide to either outside spikers or low to the center forward.

Fig. #44. THREE SPIKER ATTACK DRILL

If enough courts are available, teams of less than the regulation six players may be organized. Four-man teams are composed of two setters and two spikers and a diamond formation used (Figure #45). The rotation order is changed so that the spikers play only the two outside positions. A three-man team with one setter and two spikers is another variation. A two-man team or doubles can be either two spikers or one setter and one spiker. Mixed doubles can also be played.

The advantage in reducing the number of players lies in developing the ability to move quickly on the court. Defensively, the block is minimized and emphasis placed on back-line digs of the spiked balls.

Fig. #45. FOUR-MAN TEAM LINEUP
NET-

Discussion

During the instruction of individual fundamentals, the students will become extremely anxious to scrimmage. The teacher can explain only enough rules to get them started and then let them play during the last few minutes of the class period. Thus, in a game situation, they will be given the opportunity to use the skills being learned in the drills. This should also make the students aware of the need for further work on the fundamentals.

Following the completion of the individual skills, team fundamentals are introduced. The writer prefers to use the four spiker—two setter pattern for team organization. If the combination drills have been used, the general offensive pattern should be understood. It may be necessary to re-emphasize the point that the first pass should be directed to the center forward who acts as the setter. The first thing to explain is how to switch positions along the front line so the setter is always in the center after the serve. The alignment of both teams at the time of the serve is also covered. These patterns are more quickly learned if explained and then diagramed on a blackboard by the instructor.

The students are now ready to receive instruction in officiating. The duties of the referee, umpire, and linesman should be explained fully. The instructor can illustrate by refereeing a short match between two of the teams. Emphasis should be placed on calling "carries" or "held" balls. It is only through reasonably strict officiating that improvement in ball handling can be obtained. This introduction to officiating should be accompanied by a more detailed explanation of the rules. These rules should be condensed on one mimeographed sheet and distributed to the students.

Most high school and college students have never witnessed two good teams in action. As a result, they seldom realize that volleyball involves more than merely batting the ball over the net. It is important, therefore, to expose them to competitive volleyball if possible. This may be done through a game film or a demonstration by skilled players if either is available. It is probably most effective to do this when team fundamentals are being practiced.

The remainder of the class lessons is spent primarily on team play. After team fundamentals have been practiced, the writer suggests using two periods for a round robin of short ten-minute practice games with the students also being exposed to the job of officiating. By noting the scores, a comparison of the teams can be made. If considerable differences exist, a change of one or two key players is usually enough to bring the teams to the same approximate level. When this phase has been completed, the teams follow a full round-robin schedule, playing one match per day. During these periods the instructor has an opportunity to obtain a subjective rating of each student's playing and officiating ability. The instructor should note the mistakes being made by individuals or teams as a whole and correct them at the end of the period.

Since the class time is usually limited, the games may be played to eleven instead of fifteen points. In this way more games are completed and a better comparison of the teams can be obtained. The wins and losses should be recorded and posted daily. One of the most common early mistakes observed in team play is overanxiousness to get the ball over the net. In many cases the play becomes similar to a ping-pong game with only one hit being used by each team. This can be easily discouraged by making an addition to the rules as follows. If a player returns the ball over the net on the first pass, his team loses the volley as if they had hit it out of bounds. Exceptions would be made when blocking the ball at the net, digging a hard-driven spike, and spiking an opponent's return near the net. This rule forces the players to think in terms of directing the first pass to the setter.

Some additional suggestions to improve the course should be mentioned. Oftentimes the nets are not sufficiently taut to allow the players to retrieve the ball out of them. This can be overcome by taping a 3-foot broom handle or hockey stick to the ends of the net. This spreads the net out evenly, and these end pieces can then be fastened tightly to the standards with heavy string or rope. To further improve the net, a piece of clothesline rope should be taped along the bottom of the net. This helps the net flip the ball back into play rather than allowing it to fall to the floor.

Another feature that makes the game move more smoothly is the use of scoreboards. These can be made from a 2-foot by 4-foot board by painting two clock surfaces numbered from zero to fifteen on them. A hand or dial on each clock is attached with a small spring which keeps the hand from slipping. The board can be placed just off the court and the player nearest the board can move the dial as points are scored. Thus, the players know the score at all tunes, and the usual confusion concerning the score is eliminated.

Volleyball Tests

Tests in volleyball take two forms—the skill test and the written test. The skill test measures a student's or player's ability to perform certain aspects of the game such as serving or passing. Some of these tests have been correlated with general volleyball playing ability. The written test measures such factors as knowledge of rules, history of volleyball, and strategy.

Tests, depending on the type, can be important for grading, measuring teacher effectiveness, predicting the ability of players, classifying players into teams of equal strength, comparing players' skill and progress, diagnosing individual weaknesses, and stimulating player interest. Some skill tests, such as serving tests, can be used effectively in the instructional phase of the program.

Several volleyball coaches and instructors have devised tests and rating scales. These tests and rating scales may well accomplish the purpose for which they were intended. However, they would have much more value if controlled experiments were conducted to determine their validity and reliability.

A volleyball test can be of maximum effectiveness if it meets the following requirements. First, is the test valid, or does the test measure accurately what it intends to measure? For example, does a wall volley test actually measure general playing ability? Second, is the test reliable, or does it measure consistently what it intends to measure? For example, if the wall volley test is given to a class on different occasions, will similar results be obtained?

The statistical concepts of validity and reliability give us a common denominator from which to judge and select tests. If Test A has higher validity and reliability coefficients than Test B, then we can safely assume that Test A is better.
Unfortunately, there are just a few volleyball tests which have been subjected to statistical analysis and meet acceptable standards for both validity and reliability. Since most of these tests were devised, there have been many changes in playing techniques, officiating, and rules. The validity of some of these tests could possibly be questioned now. However, the approach which the authors took was statistically sound. Their scientific method points the way toward developing new volleyball tests at the various levels of play.

Brady developed a wall volley test designed to measure the general volleyball playing ability for college men.10 He found the test to be useful with college men as a classifying device, as one basis for grading, and as a measure of skill improvement. A horizontal chalk line is drawn on the wall 5 feet in length and 11 feet 6 inches from the floor. Vertical lines extending upward are drawn at the ends of the horizontal line. The student may stand at any distance from the wall he wishes. He throws the ball against the wall and then volleys it against the specified area on the wall. If he makes an illegal volley or if the ball gets away from him, he starts again as in the beginning. His score is the number of successful volleys in one minute.

Mohr and Haverstick devised a repeated volleys (wall volley) test for college women.11 Its purpose is to test the student's ability to control and pass the ball. The procedure calls for a line 10 feet long on the wall, 7½ feet from the floor. Another line is marked on the floor 7 feet from the wall. The student stands behind the 7-foot line and tosses the ball to the wall with an underhand toss. When it returns, she volleys it repeatedly against the wall above the net line for thirty seconds. The ball may be set up as many times as desired or necessary to maintain control. It may be caught or recovered, if it gets out of control, and re-started with a toss as at the beginning. The score for the trial is the number of times the ball is clearly batted (not tossed or held) from behind the 7-foot line to the wall on or above the net line. The student is given three trials, and her score for the test is the sum of the successful volleys made during the three trials.

In another study concerning college women, the same authors found there was a relationship between jumping ability and volleying skill, and also between agility and volleying skill. Their findings indicate that it might be worth while for teachers and coaches to devote some time with their students and players on agility exercises and on jumping practice.12

Bassett, Glassow, and Locke developed serving and repeated volleys tests for college women.13 The serving test requires a target of four frames consisting of 16-, 12-, 8-, and 4-foot concentric squares. The target is placed on the right side of the court so that the 8-foot frame falls directly over the corner of the court. This puts the 4-foot and 8-foot areas entirely in the court. The student stands behind the right one-third of the end line, on the opposite side of the court, and serves fifteen balls in succession. The target is then moved to the left side of the court and fifteen more balls are served. Scoring is as indicated in Figure #46, with the following exceptions. Two points are awarded for a ball going over the net and landing in-bounds but not on the target. One point is awarded for a ball going over the net and landing out-of-bounds, including that portion of the target which is out-of-bounds. No points are awarded for a ball not going over the net. The total serving score is the sum of the scores of the two sides.

A significant conclusion of the study by Bassett, Glassow, and Locke was that the serving test alone is sufficient for measuring the volleyball ability of college girls.

Fig. #46. SCORING TARGET FOR SERVING TEST DEVISED BY BASSETT, GLASSOW, AND LOCKE

(Target not drawn to scale here)
 
Russell and Lange devised serving and repeated volleys tests for junior high school girls.14 Achievement scales with the point value of test scores are available. In the serving test the student is given the area scores as indicated in Figure #47. A ball landing on a line separating two areas is scored the highest value. Serves in which foot faults occur score zero. Let serves are served over. The student is given two trials of ten serves each, and the test score is the better of the two.

Fig. #47.. SCORING ZONES FOR RUSSELL-LANGE SERVING TEST

Lamp made a significant study of volleyball skills of junior high school boys and girls in relation to physical size and maturation. She found positive correlation between playing ability and the factors of age, height, weight, and strength. Pubescents and postpubescents made higher scores on Lamp's skill tests than did prepubescents.15

Fulton found that student ratings of team mates is closely related to teacher judgment.16 Although using the results of the students' ratings is not suggested by Fulton as a substitute measure of skill, she does recommend this technique as a very useful diagnostic tool. It helps identify the poorer students so they may receive additional help.

A big problem in teaching volleyball to students is to know what skills to introduce at each age level and what teaching techniques to employ. Many coaches feel that the future growth of volleyball as a competitive sport is linked closely to the correct instruction of students from the elementary school level right on through college. Whether one views volleyball as a coach or a teacher, these studies involving such factors as achievement,, jumping ability, agility, maturation, strength, and student ratings are very important ani will become more important in the future.

Written tests take many forms, such as true-false, matching, multiple-choice, completion, and essay. Tests often take the form of a combination of some of the above. To construct a good written test is no easy task. A study of the techniques employed in sound test construction should be beneficial to the volleyball instructor. These techniques are covered in many of the tests and measurements books in physical education and psychology.

Langston constructed a written volleyball test for male college physical education majors which met acceptable standards of validity and reliability.17 The test can be machine graded and is available from the author at a nominal cost. Hennis constructed a similar written test suitable for use in the physical education instructional program for college women.18

Testing should be a part of every instructional program. "It has been estimated by various authorities that one-tenth of program time spent in testing is justifiable." 19

Conclusion

Many suggestions and drills have been presented in this chapter as teaching aids for volleyball instructors and coaches. The suggestions and drills cover a variety of playing levels, but much of the material can be adapted to meet different situations.

As mentioned earlier, the instructor or coach needs a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of volleyball in order to teach the game successfully. This chapter has stressed a second requirement for the successful teaching of volleyball—a mastery of sound teaching methods. Lastly, the successful teacher or coach needs diligence, patience, and enthusiasm.

References

1. Emery, Curtis Ray, Modern Volleyball (New York: The Mac-millan Company, 1953), p. 83.
   
   
2. Bush, Wayne L., "Volleyball Drills for the Gym Class and Varsity Squad," Journal of Physical Education, May-June, 1950, p.
   
   
3. Ibid.
   
   
4. Emery, op. cit., p. 83.
   
   
5. Odeneal, William T., "Syllabus for Beginning Volleyball" (unpublished material), Florida State University, Tallahassee, p. 27.
   
   
6. Bush, Wayne L., "Volleyball Class Drills" (unpublished material), YMCA, Harrisburg, Pa., p. 2.
   
   
7. Emery, op. cit., pp. 83-84.
   
   
8. Emery, op. cit., p. 85.
   
   
9. Bush, "Volleyball Drills for the Gym Class and Varsity Squad," p. 103.
   
   
10. Brady, George F., "Preliminary Investigation of Volleyball Playing Ability," Research Quarterly, March, 1945, p. 14.
    
    
11. Mohr, Dorothy R., and Haverstick, Martha J., "Repeated Volleys Tests for Women's Volleyball," Research Quarterly, March, 1955, p. 179.
    
    
12. Mohr and Haverstick,  "Relationship  Between  Height,  Jumping Ability,  and Agility to Volleyball Skill," Research Quarterly, March, 1956, p. 74.
    
    
13. Bassett, Gladys, Glassow, Ruth, and Locke, Mabel, "Studies in Testing Volleyball Skills," Research Quarterly, December, 1937, p. 60.
    
    
14. Russell, Naomi, and Lange, Elizabeth, "Achievement Tests in Volleyball for Junior High School Girls," Research Quarterly, December, 1940, p. 33.
    
    
15. Lamp, Nancy A., "Volleyball Skills of Junior High School Students as a Function of Physical Size and Maturity," Research Quarterly, May, 1954, p. 189.
    
    
16. Fulton,   R.   E.,   "Relationship   Between   Teammate   Status   and Measures of Skill in Volleyball," Research Quarterly, October, 1950, p. 276.
    
    
17. Langston, Dewey F., "Standardization of a Volleyball Knowledge Test for College Physical Education Majors," Research Quarterly, March, 1955, p. 60.
    
    
18. Hennis, Gail M., "Construction of Knowledge Tests in Selected Physical  Education  Activities  for  College Women,"  Research Quarterly, October, 1956, p. 301.
    
19. Clarke, H. Harrison, Application of Measurement to Health and Physical Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959), p. 42.