Chapter 10 - Officiating

E. Douglas Boyden

In every sport the officials are an important part of the game. Upon their judgment, many times, rests the outcome of the game or match. Volleyball is no exception to this rule. Having alert, decisive, and discerning officials can make the difference between a good or poor tournament.

Since "power" volleyball in this country is a relatively new game, there is a good bit of educating to be done with the general public and with many players relative to what constitutes good officiating. During the past few years volleyball has been going through "growing pains" in moving from what used to be known as an "old man's," or purely recreational, sport to a game that is destined to become one of the great participant and spectator sports. Today in Europe and in the Orient it is not unusual for crowds of fifteen to twenty-five thousand to gather for championship matches.

Being a volleyball official is difficult, but, as in every other sport, the official is an important part of the game. If the game of volleyball is to continue to grow and develop, there must be those who are willing and competent to officiate and guide it in its growth.

Some might ask why volleyball is so difficult to officiate. When one considers that a spiked ball travels up to 110.5 miles per hour and the official must determine how the ball is played by the defensive team, it is easy to see the importance of having competent officials. It has been said many times that Bob Feller's speed ball traveled 98.6 miles per hour and Jack Kramer's serve 104 miles per hour. Therefore, an official must be "on his toes" at all times to render the best decisions possible, not only on spiked balls but for all kinds of court play.

Not only must the official be an individual who can make instantaneous decisions, but he must be a student of the rules. It is quite possible for an official to make a mistake in judgment, but he should never make a mistake in rules interpretation. It is highly recommended that an official study the rules carefully before each tournament unless he officiates very regularly. This gives him an opportunity to "sharpen up" before the match.

There are five officials in volleyball who must be considered as most important to the success of a game—the referee, the umpire, the scorer, the timekeeper, and the linesman. Each of these officials has a number of very important duties to perform if the outcome of the game is to be satisfactorily achieved. Although all of the above-mentioned officials are important, "the referee shall be the superior official of the game and shall have the power to overrule decisions of other officials when, in his opinion, they have made errors." x

Probably the greatest problem confronting the referee is the consistency with which he calls errors. Volleyball is probably the most difficult game to referee, since the ball may not come to rest for a period of time. It may not be held, carried, or thrown, as in most other sports. It must be "clearly hit." This means there cannot be any follow-through to speak of, or the ball is carried, lifted, or thrown. Therefore, one referee may see a play slightly different from another referee.

The particular angle at which a referee sees the play can also make a difference. As for the spectators who may or may not know the rules, they may cause the unseasoned referee concern when they vent their enthusiasm over a called or uncalled play.

Since this problem of ball handling seems to be the major difficulty in refereeing, let us look into some of the points that might help toward better consistency and standardization in calling.

First of all, consider playing the ball with open palms in the underhand position. The rule specifies that "the ball must be clearly hit." "We know that a ball which makes a complete change in direction must physically come to a stop at the point where its forward force is overcome by a stronger force sending it back the way it came. Knowing the ball must come to a stop, it cannot be ruled that it must not stop. What margin of stopping do we allow? The rule says the player commits an error when, in the opinion of the proper official, the ball visibly comes to rest at contact. This means that the open palm play is legal if the ball does not visibly come to rest against that palm. Nothing is said about sound or lack of sound. The rule does not mention senses other than sight. The judgment must be based upon the visual sense only. However, it is commonly known that a player is most likely to allow the ball to come to rest visibly if he plays it with the palms of two hands underhand, from behind the shoulder, from behind his head, or overhead with his back to the net." 2

A competent official should be sure that he sees the ball come to rest. If he is not sure, he should not call an error. Also, he should never anticipate an error or foul. He should wait until it happens and then call it. It should also be kept in mind that in no place in the rules does it state that a ball must be played with the fist, heel of hand, or back of hands, with one or two hands, to be legal. It is realized that if it is played in one of these ways, it will probably be a cleaner played ball.

The set is another one of the problems. If the ball visibly comes to rest while a player is setting, then it is an error. However, an official should not assume, anticipate, or "think" it came to rest. The referee should know by seeing or he should not call it.

The same is true of the spike. A spiker may hit the ball on the palm without throwing it or changing the direction of the ball. When he hits in this fashion, it may make a loud noise. This does not mean it is an error. A player using his palm to spike the ball is more apt to throw it than a player who uses the heel of his hand or his fist. But again, the referee should not anticipate or guess. If he is not sure, he should not call it.

Receiving the serve causes difficulty also. If a server serves a ball that is wobbling, it is quite possible for the receiver to make a double contact; however, the referee should be sure of this before calling it. On the other hand, if the ball does not come out of the receiver's hands in a perfect set, it does not mean the receiver carried, lifted, or double-contacted the ball. On many serves a ball is not played properly and comes off the player's fingers or palms "dead." If the player did not hold or lift the ball, it is again a misplayed ball and should not be called. Here again, the referee must know the difference between holding, lifting, carrying, and misplayed balls.

The same is true of a hard-driven spike. On a hard-driven spike the rules state that a player may make successive contacts if they constitute one attempt to play the ball. Therefore, if a player gets in front of one of these hard-driven spikes and gets his hand or hands on the ball and his reaction time is off because of the impact of the spike, it should not be called a lift or carry. The player should be given credit for judging the ball properly and making one contact.

Many referees get themselves into difficulty because they are too strict. They tend to anticipate. They call some and not others because the plays are borderline cases. This is inconsistent calling and gets the official into difficulty with the players. If an error is made, then it should be called. On the other hand, if there is a question, by all means give the benefit to the player. Always remember that the prime reason for an official in any game is to help the players have a better and fairer game. He is only present to help the game and not to make a spectacle of himself by seeing how often he can blow the whistle, thus giving the impression that "I am a tough referee" or "I am the king-pin in this contest."

There are a number of good practices which might be thought of as "Marks of a Good Volleyball Official." If an official can master these ten practices, he will, in all probability, be a top official:

1. Friendly attitude. He should always maintain a friendly attitude toward the players. In the carrying out of his duties, it should be done in a professional rather than an authoritative manner. A friendly smile can be helpful.
   
   
2. Fair and firm decisions. He should be sure that his decisions are impartial at all times. If a mistake is made, he should not be afraid to change his decision. However, this should be the exception, and his decisions when made must be firm. These actions will instill confidence in both teams.
   
   
3. Expert knowledge of rules. The official should know and be able to interpret the rules of the U.S. Volleyball Association. This will give the players confidence and will ease tension. He should notify the player or players immediately upon the infraction of the rules. Players should not be left to wonder what happened.
   
   
4. Positive whistle. He should keep his whistle in his mouth while the ball is in play. His decisions or calls should be made quickly and sharply following an infraction of the rules. A slow whistle puts doubt in the minds of the players and spectators.
   
   
5. Instant hand signals. He should use the official hand signals immediately after calling a violation. Such signals should be executed in a deliberate manner but without exhibitionism.
   
   
6. Controlled emotions. He should never show emotion, no matter what the situation. He should never leave the officials' stand. If need be, he should call a player to the stand to interpret. If it is necessary to dismiss a player from the game, it should be done in an inconspicuous manner after an explanation to the player and the coach. If it is necessary to interpret between two teams, the referee should call the captains of both teams together and explain his decision to them.
   
   
7. Neat appearance. He should always wear the official uniform. It should be neat and clean. He should stand in an erect position.
   
   
8. Sound judgment. It is imperative that the official be a clear thinker with sound judgment. The noise of the players or spectators should not sway his thinking.
   
   
9. Consistent calling. He should be able to maintain a level of officiating through a match. Therefore, it is necessary that an official know what he is calling and why.
   
   
10. Punctuality. He should be ready to officiate fifteen minutes before the scheduled time, and he should see that all games start on time. Many tournaments run too long because the officials do not stick to the tournament time schedule. This is inexcusable and has many bad effects on the tournament.

During the course of a tournament, it is possible that an official or player may question an official's ability due to a decision that was or was not rendered. It is considered sound professional ethics for officials not to discuss one another's decisions openly. If an official has a question about another's decision or call, it is good practice to speak to the official involved when he is alone to secure his interpretation, or to consult the chairman of the officials.

As mentioned in the "Marks of a Good Official," all officials should use the official hand signals. It is important that they be executed in a deliberate manner and held long enough so that the scorer, the players, and the spectators know the infraction of the rule. The signals which should be executed by the referee are as follows:

1. Point. Raise arm in a vertical position with forefinger pointed upward. Use right arm for the team on your right and left arm for the team on your left.
   
   
2. Side Out. Swing arm in horizontal position with palm up toward end of court. Use right arm for team on your right; left arm for team on your left. Circling the hand helps to give a clearer picture of a change of serve. A point or side out should be indicated by the opposite hand immediately following each infraction of the rules.
   
   
3. Time-out. Form a T with the fingers of one hand touching the middle of the palm of the other hand and then point to team requesting time out.
   
   
4. Technical Foul. Cross forearms at shoulder height (right hand on left elbow and left hand on right elbow).
   
   
5. Over the Net. Place the hand (palm down) over the top cable of the net so that the position of the fingers indicates the foul. If a player on the team on your right fouled, use your right hand; if a player on the left team fouled, use your left hand. Then point with the other hand to the person who fouled.

6. Touching the Net. Hold mesh of net near the top with one hand and point to the player who committed the foul with the other.
   
   
7. CrossingCenter Line. The same as #5, only place the hand (palm up) under the top cable of the net.
   
   
8. Foot Fault on Service. First point to server and then to your own foot.
   
   
9. Double Hit. Hold up two fingers.
   
   
10. Four Hits. Hold up four fingers.
    
    
11. Double Foul. Cross both hands over the net, forming an X.
    
    
12. Thrown Ball. Demonstrate twice with arm and hand a downward,  sweeping motion of a throw on the  side where foul occurred.
    
    
13. Held Ball. Hold both hands forward with arms flexed and palms facing each other. Move arms slightly in an upward and downward motion.
    
    
14. Lifted Ball. Raise both hands (palm up) slowly upward.
    
    
15. Substitution. Make a big letter S and point to team wishing it.
    
    
16. Official's Time-out. Make a letter T as before in timeout and point to serf.

17. Linesman's Signals

1. Ball "In." Both arms and hands (palms down) extended in front of the body.
2. Ball "Out." Thumbs of both hands extended over the shoulders pointing away from the court.

Keeping track of the serving team is another responsibility of the referee. He may ask the umpire to assist him, but he should keep track of the service himself. Numerous devices are used. Here are several suggestions which have proven satisfactory:

1. The referee puts his hand nearest the serving team on top of the net when that team is serving. When it is side out, he changes the hand.
   
   
2. A towel or handkerchief is tied to the top end of the net. If the team to the left of the referee is serving, the towel is hung over the left side of the net. If the team on the right is serving, the towel is hung over the right side.
   
   
3. The left hand and left foot are forward if the team on the left side of the referee is serving, and the right hand and right foot are forward if the right team is serving.
   
   
4. The referee holds something, such as a coin or rubber band, in the hand on the side nearest the serving team.

It is also essential that prior to a match the referee:

1. Calls the two captains together and flips a coin to determine which team shall serve first and the teams' court positions. He also gives any final instructions on ground rules and informs them that should any question arise, only the captain should talk to the official involved.
   
   
2. Measures the height of the net at the center of the court.
   
   
3. Checks to see that there are no obstructions on or around the court and that spectators and substitute players are not seated in a hazardous location.

Since the referee is responsible for the conduct of the match, it is his duty to be sure that the minor officials (umpire, scorer, timekeeper, and linesmen) are aware of their duties and responsibilities prior to the match. It should also be understood that if in the opinion of the referee a minor official makes a wrong decision, he has the power to overrule the decision. Although the referee has this authority, this does not minimize the importance of securing competent minor officials, since the success of any match depends very greatly upon their abilities. Many problems arise because of incompetent umpires, scorers, timekeepers, and linesmen.

The referee should instruct his officials as follows:

Umpire

1. Take position on side of court opposite the referee.
   
   
2. Make decisions regarding crossing of center line.
   
   
3. Assist in calling violations involving unsportsmanlike conduct and player out of position; authorize substitution; stop play for serious injury; and assist in any other way requested by the referee.
   
   
4. Be ready to accept time-out and substitution requests from playing captain or coach.
   
   
5. Keep official time of times-out, time allowed for injuries, and time between games.
   
   
6. It is the accepted practice that the umpire observe the receiving team and the referee observe the serving team. However, the referee should instruct the umpire of his wishes.

Scorer

1. Be seated on the side of court opposite the referee.
   
   
2. Be responsible for the official scoring devices and records and record points as determined by the referee.
   
   
3. Secure names and numbers of starting players and their serving order.
   
   
4. Notify the umpire when a player is in an incorrect position as soon after the serve as possible.
   
   
5. Keep official record of each team's times-out.
   
   
6. Record substitutions as reported.
   
   
7. Notify the referee during the third game of a match when a team scores eight points or after four minutes of ball in play, whichever comes first, for automatic change of court

Timekeeper

1. Be seated beside scorer.
   
   
2. Start the clock the instant the server serves the ball and stop the clock the instant the ball is grounded or an official blows his whistle.
   
   
3. If no visible device is available to indicate the time remaining to play, he should call out the following number of minutes left to play when the ball is dead: four, two, and one.

Linesman

1. Notify the referee when the server touches a line bounding the service area or the floor outside this area at the instant the ball is hit by the server.
   
   
2. Indicate by using the official hand signals that the ball was "in" or "out" of court.
   
   
3. Notify the referee if the serve or any played ball crossed the net outside the markers on the sides of the net.
   
   
4. During time-out the linesman nearest the server shall hold the game ball. He shall give the ball to the server when the referee directs play to resume.
   
   
5. A ball touching any part of the boundary line is good.
   
   
6. Stand in the position designated by the referee.

Officiating volleyball is a team effort. If all officials are alert and perform their duties as prescribed, the playing teams will usually be satisfied. It is most important that the referee thoroughly instruct the umpire concerning his expectations. Some referees expect the umpire to call only violations including center line, unsportsmanlike conduct, player out of position, and injuries, while others expect him to call all plays if the player's back is to him. Still others ask the umpire to call all ball-handling violations whenever they are observed. Therefore, it is imperative that prior to the game the referee give complete instructions to his umpire as to his wishes.

It is considered good procedure for every official to attend one officials' clinic each year. No matter how competent an official may be, he needs practice after a layoff. Also, there are apt to be new changes and interpretations in the rules each year.

Let us again realize that volleyball is a game for the players. Officials should officiate the game according to the rules and not the way they would like to see the game played as an individual. They must insist on clean ball handling, not be so strict that volleyball becomes a whistle-tooting game with the result that it lacks player and spectator appeal.

Officiating in the United States is governed by the U.S. Volleyball Association. Those wishing information on the rules are referred to the USVBA Official Volleyball Guide.

There are two classifications of USVBA officials—Regional and National. It is necessary to be a Regional Official for one year before requesting to qualify as a National Official. To certify as a Regional Official, one should:

1. Make application to Regional Officials' Chairman.
   
   
2. Attend and participate in at least one officials' clinic.
   
   
3. Demonstrate ability to officiate satisfactorily two matches under game conditions.
   
   
4. Pass written examination on USVBA rules.
   
   
5. Regional Officials must be recertified every third year.

Those who have attained and maintained the Regional Official status for one year or more and wish to certify as a National Official should:

1. Make direct application to the National Chairman of Officials and Certification Committee or contact your Regional Officials'  Chairman to  secure  application.  This application is then forwarded to the National Chairman of Officials and Certification Committee.
   
   
2. Demonstrate ability to officiate satisfactorily two matches under game conditions.
   
   
3. Pass written examination on USVBA rules.
   
   
4. National Officials must recertify every fourth year.

Persons wishing to certify as either Regional or National Officials must wear the USVBA official's uniform at the time they demonstrate their ability to officiate. Upon certification, officials are expected to wear the uniform while officiating tournament matches. The uniform is:

Shirt—White sport shirt \(polo shirt) having a collar and two or three buttons at the top, long or short sleeves, Regional or National Official's emblem over the left breast.

Pants—Plain gray pants as worn by Navy chiefs during World War II.

Shoes—White tennis or gym shoes. Belt—Black.

Sample Volleyball Clinics for Officials, Coaches, and Players

Sample #1—For one-day clinic

9:00 A.M. History of the game.
9:15 A.M Rules of the game and their interpretation.
10:00 A.M.Developing competence as a volleyball official.

1. Procedure in becoming an official.
   
   
2. Problems of the official.
   
   
3. Marks of a good official.
   
   
4. Minor officials and their responsibilities.
   
   
5. Method of calling and game control.
   
   
6. Use of hand signals.

11:00 A.M. Techniques of coaching and playing volleyball.

1. The serve.
   
   
2. The pass.
   
   
3. The set.
   
   
4. The kill or spike.

12:00 noon Lunch
12:30 P.M. Volleyball Movie *
1:00 P.M. Continue techniques of coaching and playing volleyball.

1. The block.
   
   
2. Floor positions and floor coverage.
   
   
3. The screen.
   
   
4. Warm-up drills.
   
   
5. Ball handling.

3:00 P.M. Team games. Those wishing to certify as officials to be rated on their officiating ability.
4:30 P.M. Rules examination for officials.
5:00 P.M. Conclusion of clinic.
5:30 P.M. Presentation of official's emblems to those who qualify. If time does not permit, they are notified by mail.

Sample i+2—Officials' clinic only as a part of a one-day tournament

9:30 A.M. Rules of the game and their interpretation.
9:45 A.M. Developing competence as a volleyball official.

1. Procedure in becoming an official.
   
   
2. Problems of the official.
   
   
3. Marks of a good official.
   
   
4. Minor officials and their responsibilities.
   
   
5. Method of calling and game control.
   
   
6. Use of hand signals.

10:45 A.M. Match play. Tournament under way.

Those wishing to qualify as officials would officiate. Those who pass the practical examination would take the written examination later during the day.
* See list of films in Selected Bibliography.

References

1. Welch, J. Edmund, ed., 1960 Official Volleyball Guide (Berne, Ind.: USVBA Printer), p. 173.
   
   
2. Ibid., p. 196.

See also: John W. Bunn, The Art of Officiating Sports (Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950), chap. 12, pp. 119— 134; Robert E. Laveaga, Volley Ball (New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1942), chap. 9, pp. 76-87; and J. Edmund Welch, "Techniques of Officiating Volleyball," Journal of Physical Education, September-October, 1953, p. 45.

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